Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America :: Essays Papers

Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America John Keegan, the author of Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America (334 pgs), is a very distinguished military historian. Keegan attended Oxford University, in England, his place of birth. He was Delmas Distinguished Professor of History at Vassar in fall 1997. He was a Fellow of Princeton University in 1984 and Lecturer in Military History at Cambridge, 1986-87. From 1960-1986 he was Senior Lecturer in Military History at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Since 1986 he has been Defense Editor of The Daily Telegraph. He was awarded the OBE in the Gulf War honors list, 1991. He is a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, and a Doctor of Laws of the University of New Brunswick. He is a Visitor of Hugh Sexey's Hospital, Bruton, and is a Trustee of the National Heritage Memorial and Heritage Lottery Funds. He was the BBC Reith Lecturer for 1998, and has lectured at countless other places around the world. John Keegan is also the aut hor of many other military-history books like The Face of Battle, The Second World War, Who’s Who in Military History, and A History of Warfare, to name a few. Despite being English, Keegan professes his love for America, but interestingly, not for Americans. Keegan says that he has visited America more than fifty times, whether for business or pleasure, but never even hints at having the desire to make the good ole’ U.S.A. his place of residence. Nonetheless, he certainly has a great knowledge of North America and its history of warfare. Fields of Battle: The Wars for North America is sort of a semi-autobiography of John Keegan’s life. At the beginning, end, and countless parts throughout the book, Keegan makes references to trips to America, his childhood conceptions of America, places he has lectured, famous people he met (Bill Clinton included), and old battlefields he has visited. The rest of the book contains very detailed accounts of the major battles fought on North American soil. This begins with the settling of North America by the British and French and their battle for dominance. Next, Keegan covers The Revolutionary War (or The War of Independence, as it is called in England). Then we are informed about the Civil War, wars against the native Indians, and finally about the invention of the airplane and its importance and effect on warfare in more recent years.

Pauls Character in Pauls Case :: Paul

Paul's Character in Paul's Case Pauls's Case is the story of a young man who struggles with his identity. Paul feels that he knows where he belongs, but his family and teachers refuse to support his choices. In the middle of Paul's Case, there is a switch in narration. At this point, the reader can associate with Paul and his problems. Paul struggles with both internal and external conflicts, causing him to be quite a puzzling character. From tha perspective of his family and teachers, Paul seems abnormal. From his perspective, however, he seems misunderstood. In the beginning of the story, Paul seems to be a typical teenage boy: in trouble for causing problems in the classroom. As the story progresses, the reader can infer that Paul is rather withdrawn. He would rather live in his fantasy world than face reality. Paul dreaded returning home after the Carnegie Hall performances. He loathed his "ugly sleeping chamber with the yellow walls," but most of all, he feared his father. This is the first sign that he has a troubled homelife. Next, the reader learns that Paul has no mother, and that his father holds a neighbor boy up to Paul as "a model" . The lack of affection that Paul received at home caused him to look elsewhere for the attention that he craved. The theater and Carnegie Hall was where Paul "really lived". To him, the rest of his life was but "a sleep and a forgetting". The moment Paul stepped into either one of those places, he felt he was in his element. He "breathed like a prisoner set free". Paul's life was so monotonous and dull in comparison to his theater life, which he felt was his "secret temple". This alone provides insight into his character. He truly believed that he belonged to the arts. This makes Paul's case so sad because no one believed in him. This is what caused him to flee to New York to be in a place where he would be accepted for his true selt. Paul's train trip is where the change in narration occurs. Prior to this point, the author used an omniscient point of view. From this point on, the reader reads from Paul's point of view. The change in narration helps the reader understand Paul's perspective. He is not, as it seemed in the beginning, an abnormal person.

Response to “Letter From a Birmingham Jail”

Martin Luther King Jr. wrote â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† in response to his fellow white clergymen who criticized his actions that landed him in jail. He used Biblical examples to show that his nonviolent actions were necessary for African Americans to move forward in this country. This letter was mainly directed to those religious leaders who have the power to do something about segregation but don't. The purpose is to hopefully get the backup from powerful religious leaders and end segregation.He communicates this message very effectively to these men from his quotes from Saint Paul and King Solomon which is preached within the churches of these religious leaders. He also justifies his nonviolent action by comparing it to â€Å"just† and â€Å"unjust† laws with one example of Hitler ( â€Å"We can never forget that everything Hitler did in Germany was â€Å"legal† and everything the Hungarian freedom fighters did in Hungary was â€Å"illegal. â €  It was â€Å"illegal† to aid and comfort a Jew in Hitler's Germany. †)King claims there is no better timing for something that has been at conflict for 340 years and that there was no wrongdoing during this â€Å"sit-in. † He says in confidence, â€Å" We will reach the goal of freedom in Birmingham and all over the nation, because the goal of America is freedom. Abused and scorned though we may be, our destiny is tied up with the destiny of America. Before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, we were here. Before the pen of Jefferson scratched across the pages of history the majestic word of the Declaration of Independence, we were here †¦If the inexpressible cruelties of slavery could not stop us, the opposition we now face will surely fail. We will win our freedom because the sacred heritage of our nation and the eternal will of God are embodied in our echoing demands †¦ † Martin Luther King Jr. is asking for the help of the clergymen so the y can move forward with Civil Rights. Mr. King scolded the clergymen saying,â€Å"The early Christians rejoiced when they were deemed worthy to suffer for what they believed.In those days the Church was not merely a thermometer that recorded the ideas and principles of popular opinion; it was a thermostat that transformed the mores of society. † He was urging them to stand up for what they knew and believed was right just as the early Christian church had done in the face of execution. Martin Luther King Jr. used their belief to persuade them to see the right path. Martin Luther King Jr. ‘s major audience is the clergymen he is writing to. These men possess the power to change people's minds and yet do not even try.King gives such overwhelming emotion when he compares the situation in Birmingham with Biblical situations such as this (Of course, there is nothing new about this kind of civil disobedience. It was seen sublimely in the refusal of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed nego to obey the laws of Nebuchadnezzar because a higher moral law was involved. It was practiced superbly by the early Christians, who were willing to face hungry lions and the excruciating pain of chopping blocks before submitting to certain unjust laws of the Roman Empire.) Using this quote he tried to explain once again that sometimes to do what is right you have to take chances that may seem wrong and may be labeled as wrong. He is very professional and polite at the beginning which helps the audience to really listen to what he has to say. When he really gets his point through is when he gradually gets firmer and firmer throughout the text yet at the same time still being polite. King portrays himself as one of the clergymen, but one that has to overcome the many obstacles of the average African American.He acts as a friend and yet in the middle of the letter he portrays the religious leaders as an enemy that he hopes will reconsider their position on Civil Rights. Important Q uotes: â€Å"So I have tried to make it clear that it is wrong to use immoral means to attain moral ends. But now I must affirm that it is just as wrong, or even more so, to use moral means to preserve immoral ends. † This quote means that it is wrong to use forceful methods and violence to get a good ending but it is equally as bad to sit by and watch, doing nothing, while dissolute actions are being made.â€Å"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly. † Martin Luther King’s quote means that even if you aren’t directly affected by the current situation it will somehow come back to include you so the best way to handle injustice is to get rid of it right away and not let it affect anyone.†¦ it is immoral to urge an individual to withdraw his efforts to gain his basic constitutional rights becaus e the quest precipitates violence. Society must protect the robbed and punish the robber. This quote discourages the clergymens’ decision to sit back and not do anything about the growing issue of slavery in Birmingham. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was urging them to change the hearts of the people and communities they preached to. Mr. King believed that society must protect the African Americans affected by racism and punish the racist.

Ottoman vs. Mughals

Ottoman Empire Vs. Mughal Empire The Ottoman and Mughal empires were two of the most successful empires to ever come together. However, in their dominance there was many similarities as well as differences. Both went through their share of struggle. Whether through political, religious, or cultural struggle the two empires had to rely on their emperors for guidance and rule. The Ottomans were amid the Turkic-speaking nomadic people who had spread westward from Central Asia through out the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries. The first to appear were the Seljuk Turks.In the late thirteenth century, a new group of Turks began to emerge in the northwestern corner of Anatolian peninsula, under the leadership of the tribal leader Osman. These Turks were peaceful and engaged in pastoral pursuits. However, with the decline of the Seljuk Empire in the early fourteenth century, the Osman Turks began to expand and founded the Osmanli dynasty. The Osmanlis later became known as the Ottomans. La ter expanding westward the Ottoman Empire set up their first European base at Gallipoli. They expanded gradually into the Balkans and allied with Serbia and Bulgar forces against the Byzantines.Okhar gradually established permanent settlements in the area. Throughout the area Turkish provincial governors, called beys, collected taxes from the local Slavic peasants after driving out the previous landlords. This later became known as the Bey system. Which would be the foundation of the Ottoman administration for centuries. In this system the Ottoman leader began to claim the title of Sultan or supreme power over his domain. â€Å"The Ottoman political system was the result of the evolution of tribal institutions into a sedentary empire† (Duiker, Spielvogel. 455).At the apex of this system was the Sultan, who was the authority in both a political and military sense. Though, both administrative and military power was centralized under the bey. Okhar’s son Murad succeeded h im in 1389. Murad began to build of a strong military administration based on the recruitment of Christians into an elite guard. These warriors were called Janissaries. Some of these Janissaries were even able to become senior members of the bureaucracy. They were then assigned land in fief by the sultan and were responsible for collecting taxes and supplying armies to the empire.The land was farmed out to the local cavalry elite called the Sipahis. Who were equivalent to the beys, this system later became known as the Devshirme system. Janissaries were also a big advantage because they were directly subordinated to the sultanate; because of this they owed loyalty to the person of the sultan. Both Okhar’s and Murad’s system were vital aspects of the Ottoman’s expansion. The most prevalent was in 1451 when Mehmet II ordered the construction of a major fortress on the Bosporus. This move put the Turks in a position to strangle the Byzantine Empire. With the Byzant ines hand-cuffed, Mehmet II made his move.He attacked Constantinople in 1453 where he defeated the empire and ignited the expansion of what would be known as one of the most dominant empires of all time. Constantinople later was renamed to Istanbul, as it became the center of the art, education, and religion for the Ottoman Empire. Mehmet II did not only tear down the Byzantine Empire, but he also built the Topkapi Palace, which was the heart of administration and religion. The Ottoman Empire continued their expansion with Mehmet’s successor Selim I in 1512. Selim I defeated the Mamlucks of Egypt after they failed to support the Ottomans in there battle against the Safavids.Which gave him control of several holy cities of Islam, including Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina, Selim declared himself the new Caliph, or the successor of Muhammad in the Muslim religion. The Caliph is the highest religious authority and the defender of the religion. Also, the Caliph interprets laws of the Shari’a. However, in practice the Head Priest does the interpreting. These Ottomans elites were Sunni Muslims, although, Islamic law and customs were applied to all Muslims in the empire. Some communities were attracted to Sufism or other heterodox doctrines.The government accepted such activities as long as the communities remained loyal to the empire. Non-Muslims formed a significant minority within the empire. The minority was treated with relative tolerance, but they were compelled to pay a head tax and were permitted to practice their religion or convert to Islam. Each of these religious groups within the empire was organized as an administrative unit known as millet. Each group, including Muslims had its own patriarch priest, who dealt as an intermediary with the government and administered the community according to its own laws. Nomadic people were placed in separate millets.Where they were subject to their own laws, and were governed by their hereditary chiefs, the beys. The Mughals came about in quite a different way. In the late fourteenth century, the Indian subcontinent known as Calicut was divided into a number of Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. However, it was on the verge of a new era of unity that was brought upon by a foreign dynasty known as the Mughals. The Founder of the Mughal Empire known as Babur had a prominent family history, not only was his father a descendent from the great Asian conqueror Tamerlane, but his mother was also a descendent from the Mongol Conqueror Genghis Khan.Unlike the Ottomans who earned their first land as a reward from the Seljuk Turks for their role in the drive out of the Mongols in the late thirteenth century. Babur inherited a portion of Tamerlane’s empire in an upland valley of the Syr Darya River. Though, the Uzbeks and then the Safavid dynasty in Persia drove him south. Babur and his warriors later seized Kabul in 1504 and thirteen years later crossed Khyber Pass into India. Moreover, the conque ror of the Mughal Empire that made the greatest impact was Babur’s grandson Akbar.Although he was illiterate, and only assumed the throne at the age of fourteen. He was also remembered as one of the most intelligent conquerors of the empire. So intelligent, instead of taking the title of the Caliph as the Ottoman’s did. He proclaimed himself as the spiritual and temporal head of state. Akbar did this to insure that everyone would follow his policies, not because he was Devine, but because of his wisdom. Akbar took toleration to an entirely different level. Making the Ottoman’s look intolerable, as emperor Akbar displayed a keen interest in other religions.Tolerating Hindu practices in his own domains but also welcoming the expression of Christian views by his Jesuit advisers. With these beliefs, Akbar decided to formulate his own religion he called Din-I-Ilahi. This religion was based off toleration, taking away many regulations that the Muslim court had in plac e. For example, he allowed worship in public; he allowed construction of Christian churches and Hindu Temple. As well as establishing a translation department, translating Hindu religious books into Persian. Yet in 1519, maybe the most important regulation was eliminated, when Akbar abolished the Jizya.This was the head tax put in place by the ottomans to all of the Non-Muslims had to pay in order to stay out of the military. Doing this created a brotherhood of man within the Muslim culture, unlike the Ottomans who looked down on the minorities in the area. Akbar also extends his changes to the imperial administration. The empire was divided into provinces, a lot like the Ottoman’s, and the administration of each province was modeled after the central government, with separate departments for military, financial, commercial, and legal affairs. Senior officials were then appointed for each department.These officials were known as Zamindars. The officials were first paid salari es, but later they were ordinarily assigned sections of agricultural land. Where peasants walked the land, tilled the land, but were forced to pay a tax to the Zamindar. Which was partly kept by the Zamindar, and the rest was forwarded to the central government. The Zamindar also recruited a number of military and civilian retainers and accumulated considerable power in their areas. A great deal of the Mughals success was the harmony that Akbar imposed on their society.Unfortunately, when Akbar passed, so did most of his ideas. Akbar’s successors tried to turn the Mughal Empire back into a Sunni Muslim state, and the toleration of Non-Muslims was gone. This discrimination as well as economic crisis led to decline of the Mughal Empire. Despite the fact that both the Ottoman’s and the Mughals had outstanding leadership and motivation, this was not the lone factor that allowed them to be so successful. Some scholars have labeled them â€Å"Gun Powder Empire† becaus e of their superior military techniques of modern warfare, especially the use of firearms.Firearms played a central role in expansion for both the empires. In conclusion, these two Sunni Muslim empires could seem quite diverse on one hand, but in the big picture they have a considerable amount in common. Both were trying to achieve their goal of expansion, and both had to innovate their own regulations within a Sunni Muslim state. Nevertheless, the two went about these two goals in a diverse way. Bibliography – William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel, World History Seventh Edition, The Pennsylvania State University, Vol. II, Since 1500.

The effectiveness of HRM should be assessed only by financial measures - Negative and Affirmative Free Essay Example, 1500 words

The Effectiveness of HRM should be Assessed by Other Measures In a study conducted by Crawford (2005, 3), he averred that â€Å"the multiple constituency approach to HRM effectiveness adopts the multiple constituency model of organizational effectiveness, which is the most appropriate for evaluating HRM. This approach considers the influences of key stakeholders in the organization. † Literatures presenting various approaches to measure the effectiveness of HR performance indicated the Balanced Scorecard approach as translating â€Å"strategy into operational terms by measuring a full range of perspectives: financial, customer, internal, and learning and growth. † (OPM, 1999, 19). In a paper written by Cabrera thus, it acts as a management, rather than measurement, system by helping managers to better understand how different measures are related and how they ultimately contribute to financial results (Bontis, et al. , 1999)†. The research of OPM discussed other measures of HRM effectiveness including benchmarking (â€Å"a systematic process of measuring an organization’s products, services, and practices against those of a like organization that is a recognized leader in the studied area† (OPM, 1999, 18); activity based costing, a method aimed to determine the true cost for a product or service; and the â€Å"Malcolm Baldrige and the President’s Quality Award Criteria, based on a set of core values and concepts that integrate key business requirements into a results-oriented framework (OPM, 1999, 20)†. More importantly, as the roles and functions of HRM become more diverse adapting to the demands of the times, the means to assess its effectiveness evolves into encompassing areas of employee development (employee behavior, attitudes and skills), competencies, performance, as these attributes all contribute to the achievement of organizational goals. We will write a custom essay sample on The effectiveness of HRM should be assessed only by financial measures - Negative and Affirmative or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now As aptly concluded by Cabrera & Cabrera, â€Å"no longer are operational measures of internal efficiency sufficient. HR departments must be able to demonstrate the value of their strategic contributions† (2003, 3). According to Crawford, â€Å"from a HRM perspective, the multiple constituency approach can be operationalized by measuring HRM effectiveness from the perspective of HRMs internal and external stakeholders (such as top management, line management, employees, customers, and trade unions). This particular approach demonstrates the responsiveness of HRM to the demands of a variety of stakeholders who may hold different opinions regarding the effectiveness of the function.

Battle of Quebec in the American Revolution

The Battle of Quebec was fought on the night of December 30/31, 1775 during the American Revolution (1775-1783). Beginning in September 1775, the invasion of Canada was the first major offensive operation conducted by American forces during the war. Initially led by Major General Philip Schuyler, the invading force  departed Fort Ticonderoga and commenced an advance down (northward) the Richelieu River toward Fort St. Jean. Initial attempts to reach the fort proved abortive and an increasingly ill Schuyler was compelled to turn over command to Brigadier General Richard Montgomery. A distinguished veteran of the French and Indian War, Montgomery resumed the advance on September 16 with 1,700 militia. Arriving at Fort St. Jean three days later, he laid siege and forced the garrison to surrender on November 3. Though a victory, the length of the siege badly delayed the American invasion effort and saw many suffer from sickness. Pressing on, the Americans occupied Montreal without a fight on November 28. Armies Commanders: Americans Brigadier General Richard MontgomeryColonel Benedict ArnoldColonel James Livingston900 men British Governor Sir Guy Carleton1,800 men Arnolds Expedition To the east, a second American expedition fought its way north through the Maine wilderness. Organized by Colonel Benedict Arnold, this force of 1,100 men had been picked from the ranks of General George Washingtons Continental Army outside Boston. Proceeding from Massachusetts to the mouth of the Kennebec River, Arnold had expected the trek north through Maine to take around twenty days. This estimate was based on a rough map of the route developed by Captain  John Montresor in 1760/61. Moving north, the expedition soon suffered due to the poor construction of their boats and the faulty nature of Montresors maps. Lacking adequate supplies, starvation set in and the men were reduced to eating shoe leather and candle wax. Of the original force, only 600 eventually reached the St. Lawrence. Nearing Quebec, it quickly became clear that Arnold lacked the men needed to take the city and that the British were aware of their approach. British Preparations Withdrawing to Pointe aux Trembles, Arnold was forced to wait for reinforcements and artillery. On December 2, Montgomery descended the river with around 700 men and united with Arnold.   Along with reinforcements, Montgomery brought four cannon, six mortars, additional ammunition, and winter clothing for Arnolds men. Returning to the vicinity of Quebec, the combined American force laid siege to the city on December 6. At this time, Montgomery issued the first of several surrender demands to the Governor-General of Canada, Sir Guy Carleton.   These were dismissed out of hand by Carleton who instead looked to improve the citys defenses. Outside of the city, Montgomery endeavored to construct batteries, the largest of which was completed on December 10. Due to the frozen ground, it was constructed from blocks of snow. Though a bombardment commenced, it did little damage. As days passed, Montgomery and Arnolds situation became increasingly desperate as they lacked the heavy artillery to conduct a traditional siege, their mens enlistments would soon be expiring, and British reinforcements likely would arrive in the spring. Seeing little alternative, the two began planning an attack on the city. They hoped that if they advanced during a snowstorm, they would be able to scale Quebecs walls undetected. Within its walls, Carleton possessed a garrison of 1,800 regulars and militia. Aware of American activities in the area, Carleton made efforts to enhance the citys formidable defenses by erecting a series of barricades. The Americans Advance To assault the city, Montgomery and Arnold planned on advancing from two directions. Montgomery was to attack from the west, moving along the St. Lawrence waterfront, while Arnold was to advance from the north, marching along the St. Charles River. The two were to reunite at point where the rivers joined and then turn to attack the city wall. To divert the British, two militia units would make feints against Quebecs western walls. Moving out on December 30, the assault began after midnight on the 31st during a snowstorm. Advancing past the Cape Diamond Bastion, Montgomerys force pressed into the Lower Town where they encountered the first barricade. Forming to attack the barricades 30 defenders, the Americans were stunned when the first British volley killed Montgomery. A British Victory In addition to killing Montgomery, the volley struck down his two chief subordinates. With their general down, the American attack faltered and the remaining officers ordered a withdrawal. Unaware of Montgomerys death and the attacks failure, Arnolds column pressed on from the north. Reaching the Sault au Matelot, Arnold was hit and wounded in the left ankle. Unable to walk, he was carried to the rear and command was transferred to Captain Daniel Morgan. Successfully taking the first barricade they encountered, Morgans men moved into the city proper. Continuing the advance, Morgans men suffered from damp gunpowder and had difficulty navigating the narrow streets. As a result, they paused to dry their powder. With Montgomerys column repulsed and Carletons realization that the attacks from the west were a diversion, Morgan became the focus of the defenders activities. British troops counterattacked in the rear and retook the barricade before moving through the streets to surround Morgans men. With no options remaining, Morgan and his men were forced to surrender. Aftermath The Battle of Quebec cost the Americans 60 dead and wounded as well as 426 captured. For the British, casualties were a light 6 killed and 19 wounded. Though the assault failed, American troops remained in the field around Quebec. Rallying the men, Arnold attempted to lay siege to the city. This proved increasingly ineffective as men began to desert following the expiration of their enlistments. Though he was reinforced, Arnold was forced to fall back following the arrival of 4,000 British troops under Major General John Burgoyne. After being defeated at Trois-Rivià ¨res on June 8, 1776, American forces were forced to retreat back into New York, ending the invasion of Canada.

Occupy Wall - 1824 Words

Running Head: Occupy Wall Street Movement Occupy Wall Street By: Barbara Manley Business 309 Professor: Dr. Badowski January 29, 2013 Running Head: Occupy Wall Street Movement 1 Occupy Wall Street Movement The Occupy Wall Street Movement came about in September of 2011. This was a movement about corporate money ant the influences it has on the politics. Many supported this movement because they felt that politics† supported corporate greed, as well as financial and social inequality.† (Haidt, 2012). One moral view of this was focused on democracy, which must were lead to believe was controlled mostly money and not the people which is what a democracy is supposed to be focused on. Those who supported (OWS) Occupy Wall Street believed†¦show more content†¦This will leave no room for guessing and trying to figure out what they are really trying to convey. For example if a person in a position of power is seeking to take advantage of a situation they tend to try to hide that fact but it usually comes out when they are call out about certain things they have been doing and then they try to cover those things up, but in the end the ethics theory will speak for itself. Determine who is responsible for income inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. in your analyze make sure to include if this is something that happened suddenly or if it built up over time. Explain your rationale. I would have to say that the government is responsible for the income inequality and wealth distribution in the U.S. that we see today, this has been like this for years, many the people that are in higher paying positions are those of power and influence and they don’t have to abide by the same rules as those who are considered middle class, or lower class, they don’t pay their taxes like they should and those who are less fortunate than them are left to bare the burden, the upper class folks pretty much run the economy and could care less about those who can barely make their daily needs and provide for their family. We can go backShow MoreRelatedThe Occupy Wall Street1112 Words   |  5 PagesThe Occupy Wall Street began in fall of 2011 in response to an email which was sent by online publication Adbusters. In this call-to-arms, those without jobs or other such responsibilities were urged to make their way to Manhattan for a long-term civil protest. 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In quintessence, Occupy Wall Street is a series of protests and demonstrations that oppose the influence that corporate greed has on American Democracy. The protestors manipulate marches and nonviolent demonstrations to express their dissatisfaction with the state of American Politics and economy. This relates to the political science